D.WL.ED EXAM PREPARATION
MCQ ANSWERS & SHORT QUESTION ANSWER
CC-01
In which theory is
the concept of "Schema" used?
Correct answer: Theory of Cognitive Development
Explanation:
Schema is a core concept in Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory.
It refers to the mental framework that organizes knowledge in a child's mind
(e.g., a child's preconception of a "bird" having wings and the
ability to fly).
What type of
development did psychologist Erikson propose?
Correct answer: Psychosocial
Development
Explanation:
Erik Erikson introduced the Psychosocial Development Theory, which
describes human social and emotional development across eight stages (e.g.,
Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame).
Which of the
following is not a process of socialization?
Correct answer: Analysis
Explanation:
Socialization processes include Internalization, Adaptation, and
Accommodation. However, Analysis is a cognitive process,
not part of socialization.
Who proposed the
Social Learning Theory?
Correct answer: Bandura
Explanation:
Albert Bandura introduced the Social Learning Theory, where
children learn through imitation and observation (e.g.,
the Bobo doll experiment).
What does
"ZPD" stand for?
Correct answer: Zone
of Proximal Development
Explanation:
ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) is Vygotsky’s concept, referring to the gap
between a child’s current and potential development levels. A teacher or peer
can help bridge this gap.
What is the age
range for early childhood education?
Correct answer: 4-6
years
Explanation:
Early Childhood Education typically covers the pre-primary stage (4-6
years), focusing on foundational skills (reading, writing, social
interaction).
Which is an example
of expressive play?
Correct answer: Doll play
Explanation:
Doll play is an expressive play activity where
children use imagination and emotions (e.g., role-playing as parents).
What is working
memory?
Correct answer: Short-term
memory
Explanation:
Working Memory is a short-term memory system that
temporarily holds and processes information (e.g., solving a math problem).
According to which
theory do children seek recognition as "good boys/good girls"?
Correct answer: Psychosocial
Development Theory
Explanation:
In Erikson’s Industry vs. Inferiority stage (6-12 years),
children seek recognition through achievements.
Until what age are
children typically egocentric?
Correct answer: Up
to six years
Explanation:
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) includes egocentrism,
where children struggle to understand others' perspectives.
Which of the
following is not a Freudian level of the mind?
Correct answer:
Fully Conscious
Explanation:
Freud’s mind levels are Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious.
"Fully Conscious" is not a recognized level.
At which stage of
language development does "babbling" occur?
Correct answer: 4-6 months
Explanation:
Babbling (e.g., "ba-ba," "da-da") appears in
early language development (4-6 months).
From what age do
children typically love toys?
Correct answer: From
birth
Explanation:
Children are naturally attracted to colorful/noisy toys from birth,
aiding sensory development.
What does
"Proximodistal" mean in child development?
Correct answer: From
center to extremities
Explanation:
The Proximodistal Principle states that development progresses
from the core (spine) outward (arms to fingers).
How are childhood
emotions characterized?
Correct answer: High
intensity but short duration
Explanation:
Children’s emotions (e.g., anger, joy) are intense but fleeting—they
cry and calm quickly.
Which learning
theory explains memorizing multiplication tables?
Correct answer: Classical
Conditioning
Explanation:
Memorization (e.g., tables) involves repetition and conditioned
responses, key to Classical Conditioning.
What does
"Gestalt" mean?
Correct answer: Whole
Explanation:
Gestalt (German for "whole") theory emphasizes perceiving
patterns as complete forms (e.g., seeing dots as a shape).
What is a
"Morpheme"?
Correct answer: Smallest
meaningful unit of language
Explanation:
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit (e.g.,
"playing" = "play" + "-ing").
Which is not a feature of attention?
Correct answer: Immutable
Explanation:
Attention is fluctuating, selective, and focus-oriented.
"Immutable" is incorrect, as attention shifts.
Which principle
is not supported by Gestalt theory?
Correct answer: Principle
of Segregation
Explanation:
Gestalt principles include Similarity, Proximity, and Continuity—not Segregation.
In what area do
children outperform adults?
Correct answer:
Imagination
Explanation:
Children excel in imagination (e.g., creative play, talking to
dolls) compared to adults.
Who first proposed
"Constructivism"?
Correct answer: Piaget
Explanation:
Jean Piaget pioneered Constructivism, where children actively build
knowledge through environmental interaction.
Which activity
does not require fine motor skills?
Correct answer: Walking
Explanation:
Fine motor skills involve hand/finger control (e.g.,
writing). Walking uses gross motor skills.
Which commission
recommended the "Three-Language Formula"?
Correct answer: Kothari
Commission
Explanation:
The Kothari Commission (1964–66) proposed the Three-Language
Formula:
·
Mother tongue/regional language
·
Hindi/English
·
A modern Indian language.
What is not a
socialization process?
Correct answer: Analysis
Explanation:
Socialization involves Internalization, Adaptation, and Accommodation—not Analysis.
At which stage is
"peer group" influence strongest?
Correct answer: Adolescence
Explanation:
Adolescence (12–18 years) is marked by strong peer group influence
on behavior/values.
Who is a key
proponent of Social Constructivism?
Correct answer:
(iv) Vygotsky
Explanation:
Lev Vygotsky advocated Social Constructivism, where knowledge is
shaped by society/culture.
Working memory is
also called:
Correct answer: Short-term
memory
Explanation:
Working Memory temporarily holds/processes information (e.g.,
solving math problems).
Learning is a(n):
Correct answer: Acquired
process
Explanation:
Learning is acquired through experience, practice, and
environment (e.g., language learning).
How does sleep
affect retroactive inhibition?
Correct answer: Reduces
it
Explanation:
Retroactive Inhibition (new info disrupting old memories) is
reduced by sleep, aiding retention.
Which country is
Kabaddi from?
Correct answer: India
Explanation:
Kabaddi is a traditional Indian team sport, now part of the Asian
Games.
Which is not a
play characteristic?
Correct answer: Forced
activity
Explanation:
Play is creative, spontaneous, and joyful—not forced.
What is
"Inclusion"?
Correct answer:
Democratic process
Explanation:
Inclusion integrates all children (general/special needs) in
learning—a democratic approach.
Which is not a
Constructivist principle?
Correct answer: Focusing only on past experiences
Explanation:
Constructivism emphasizes current experiences and active
participation—not just past experiences.
When is school
education most effective?
Correct answer: All
of the above
Explanation:
Effective education requires needs-based, interest-driven, and
goal-aware approaches.
How do emotions
impact learning?
Correct answer: Emotional
balance is crucial
Explanation:
Emotions (e.g., motivation, stress) significantly affect
learning; balance enhances it.
Operant
Conditioning’s two key principles are reinforcement and:
Correct answer: Shaping
Explanation:
Operant Conditioning relies on:
·
Reinforcement
·
Shaping (gradual behavior molding).
Which is not Thorndike’s
learning principle?
Correct answer: Principle of Total Response
Explanation:
Thorndike’s principles are Readiness, Exercise, and Effect—not
"Total Response" (a Gestalt idea).
Which is not Classical
Conditioning?
Correct answer: Problem-solving
Explanation:
Classical Conditioning involves habit formation, fear, attitudes—not problem-solving (a
cognitive process).
Which is a social
process?
Correct answer: All
of the above
Explanation:
Cooperation, competition, and adjustment are all social
processes shaping relationships.
Human development
begins:
Correct
answer: In the womb
Explanation:
Development starts prenatally, with physical/neural growth in the
womb.
Which is not a
development principle?
Correct answer:
Development is purely innate
Explanation:
Development results from heredity-environment interaction—not just
innate factors.
How many stages did
Erikson propose for psychosocial development?
Correct answer: (ii) Eight
Explanation:
Erikson’s 8 psychosocial stages include Trust vs. Mistrust,
Autonomy vs. Shame, etc.
Which activity
does not require fine motor skills?
Correct answer: Walking
Explanation:
Fine motor skills control hands/fingers (e.g., writing). Walking uses gross
motor skills.
What hinders
socialization?
Correct answer:
(iii) Jealousy
Explanation:
Jealousy disrupts social bonds, hindering socialization.
Who wrote "A
Study of the Larger Mind"?
Correct answer: C. Cooley
Explanation:
Charles Cooley introduced the Looking-Glass Self theory
(self-concept shaped by social perceptions).
How are children’s
emotional states characterized?
Correct answer: Rapidly
changing
Explanation:
Children’s emotions (e.g., joy, anger) shift quickly—they cry one
moment and laugh the next.
Who proposed Insightful Learning?
Correct answer: Köhler
Explanation:
Köhler’s Insightful Learning involves sudden problem-solving
(e.g., a monkey using a stick to get bananas).
Which is not a
memory component?
Correct answer: Gaining
experience
Explanation:
Memory involves encoding, storage, retrieval—not gaining
experience.
Working memory is
also called:
Correct answer: Short-term memory
Explanation:
Working Memory temporarily processes information (e.g., remembering
a phone number).
What is a
"Schema"?
Correct answer: A
basic cognitive framework
Explanation:
A schema organizes knowledge (e.g., a child’s concept of a
"bird").
Who is a Cognitive
Constructivist?
Correct answer: Jean
Piaget
Explanation:
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism posits that children
actively construct knowledge.
Who is a Social
Constructivist?
Correct answer: Vygotsky
Explanation:
Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism emphasizes learning through
social/cultural interaction.
What is the first
stage of cognitive development?
Correct answer: Sensorimotor
stage
Explanation:
Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years) involves learning
through senses/actions.
What is an example
of functional play?
Correct answer: Block stacking
Explanation:
Functional play includes simple object use (e.g., stacking blocks,
rolling a ball).
Which is not a
language component?
Correct answer: Pronunciation
Explanation:
Language components are phonology, syntax, semantics—not pronunciation.
Who proposed the
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?
Correct answer: Chomsky
Explanation:
Noam Chomsky’s LAD theory posits an innate capacity for
language learning.
Who proposed Social
Learning Theory?
Correct answer: Bandura
Explanation:
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory highlights learning via observation/imitation.
What does
brainstorming encourage?
Correct answer: Divergent
thinking
Explanation:
Brainstorming fosters divergent thinking (generating
multiple solutions).
What is an external
determinant of attention?
Correct answer: Contrast
Explanation:
External attention determinants include contrast, novelty, and movement.
Who advocated
"Holism" in education?
Correct answer:
Köhler
Explanation:
Köhler’s Gestalt Theory supports holism—learning
as a whole, not just parts.
Which is not a
socialization process?
Correct answer: Analysis
Explanation:
Socialization involves accommodation, adaptation, internalization—not analysis.
Which is not a
language component?
Correct answer: Pragmatics-related
Explanation:
Language components are syntax, morphology, semantics—not pragmatics-related.
Which body part
strongly expresses emotions?
Correct answer: Facial
expressions
Explanation:
Facial expressions (e.g., smiles, frowns) are key to emotional
display.
Which is not an
objective determinant of attention?
Correct answer: Experience
Explanation:
Objective attention determinants are contrast, novelty, duration—experience is
subjective.
At what age does
"cooing" appear in language development?
Correct answer: 6–8
weeks
Explanation:
Cooing (e.g., "coo-coo") emerges at 6–8 weeks.
Who linked emotions
to instincts?
Correct answer:
McDougall
Explanation:
McDougall tied emotions (e.g., fear) to instincts (e.g.,
flight response).
What is the Skinner
Box used for?
Correct answer: Operant
learning
Explanation:
The Skinner Box studies operant conditioning (e.g.,
a rat pressing a lever for food).
What is
"overlearning"?
Correct answer: Repetition
after mastery
Explanation:
Overlearning involves repeating learned material
to enhance retention.
When do children
develop social concepts?
Correct answer: After
forming self-concept
Explanation:
Children first understand self (e.g., "Who am I?")
before grasping social concepts (e.g., "Who are
others?").
How many types of
motor development are there?
Correct answer: Three
Explanation:
Motor development includes:
·
Gross motor (large muscles)
·
Fine motor (small muscles)
·
Coordination.
Working memory is
also called:
Correct answer:
Short-term memory
Explanation:
Working Memory temporarily holds/processes information (e.g.,
solving problems).
How many stages are
in Erikson’s psychosocial theory?
Correct answer:
(iv) Eight
Explanation:
Erikson’s 8 stages span from infancy to old age (e.g., Trust
vs. Mistrust, Integrity vs. Despair).
What is irrelevant to
growth/development?
Correct answer:
(iv) Direct
Explanation:
Growth/development involves thinking, moral growth, socialization—not directness.
Until what age are
children egocentric?
Correct answer: Around
5 years
Explanation:
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) peaks in egocentrism around
age 5.
Operant
Conditioning’s two key principles are reinforcement and:
Correct answer: Shaping
Explanation:
Operant Conditioning relies on:
·
Reinforcement
·
Shaping (gradual behavior molding).
When is motor skill development most critical?
Correct answer: Childhood
Explanation:
Childhood (2–12 years) is prime for motor skills (walking,
running, catching).
What type of
constructivist is Vygotsky?
Correct answer: Social
Explanation:
Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism emphasizes learning via
social interaction.
Who proposed the
"Trial and Error" learning theory?
Correct answer: Thorndike
Explanation:
Thorndike’s Trial and Error theory posits learning through
repeated attempts.
What else is needed
for insightful learning?
Correct answer: All
of the above
Explanation:
Insightful Learning requires interest, prior experience,
intelligence, and problem-solving focus.
SHORT QUESTION ANSWERS- 2 MARKS
Differentiate between Classical and Operant Conditioning (two points).
Answer:
1. Classical (Pavlov): Involuntary
responses (e.g., salivation).
2. Operant (Skinner): Voluntary
behaviors (e.g., pressing a lever).
Compare individual and group play (two differences).
Answer:
1. Individual Play: Solitary
(e.g., puzzles).
2. Group Play: Requires
coordination (e.g., soccer).
Explain Thorndike’s Law of
Effect.
Answer:
"Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are repeated; those followed by
unsatisfying outcomes are diminished."
Name four determinants of self-concept formation.
Answer:
1. Family environment
2. Social interactions
3. Education
4. Cultural influences
What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral development?
Answer:
1. Pre-conventional: Punishment-obedience,
self-interest.
2. Conventional: "Good
boy/girl," law-and-order.
3. Post-conventional: Social
contract, universal ethics.
State two roles of family in socialization.
Answer:
1. Instills core
values (e.g., honesty).
2. Transmits language
and cultural traditions.
List the stages of socio-cognitive learning.
Answer:
1. Imitation
2. Role-playing
3. Collaborative
learning
Write two features of Classical
Conditioning.
Answer:
1. Involuntary
responses (e.g., fear).
2. Stimulus-response
association (e.g., bell → salivation).
List Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
Answer:
1. Pre-conventional: Avoid
punishment, seek rewards.
2. Conventional: Conformity to
social norms.
3. Post-conventional: Abstract
ethical principles.
Differentiate between language
and speech (two points).
Answer:
1. Language: Abstract
system; Speech: Concrete expression.
2. Language: Collective
property; Speech: Individual.
Name two prerequisites for concept formation.
Answer:
1. Real-world
experiences (e.g., observing animals).
2. Generalization
(identifying common traits).
State two traits of the Superego.
Answer:
1. Governs morality and
ideals.
2. Instills discipline
and responsibility.
Give two examples of the Preoperational stage.
Answer:
1. Pretend play (e.g.,
inventing dragon stories).
2. Animism (e.g.,
believing rocks are alive).
Identify two causes of learning disabilities.
Answer:
1. Structural brain
abnormalities.
2. Lack of adaptive
teaching methods.
Define ‘Conditioned Stimulus.’
Answer:
A stimulus that elicits a conditioned response (e.g., Pavlov’s bell).
State Thorndike’s Law of Readiness.
Answer:
"Learning is effective when the learner is prepared. Unprepared learning
causes frustration."
Suggest two ways to alleviate children’s fears.
Answer:
1. Gradual exposure
(e.g., playing in dim light).
2. Boosting confidence
(praise and encouragement).
List two features of Operant Conditioning.
Answer:
1. Learning through
repetition.
2. Behavior shaped by
rewards/punishments.
What are the types of learning transfer?
Answer:
1. Positive Transfer: Prior
learning aids new learning.
2. Negative Transfer: Prior
learning hinders new learning.
Differentiate Growth and Development (two points).
Answer:
1. Growth: Physical (height/weight); Development: Holistic.
2. Growth: Quantitative; Development: Qualitative.
Suggest two ways to enhance a child’s communication skills.
Answer:
1. Encouraging
storytelling/listening.
2. Participating in
group activities.
Name Erikson’s psychosocial stages.
Answer:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
(0-1 year)
2. Autonomy vs. Shame
(1-3 years) ... (up to 8 stages).
Define attention.
Answer:
Attention is the mental process of focusing on a specific stimulus.
What is Libido?
Answer:
Freud’s concept of psychic energy driving sexual/creative instincts.
Define R-Type Conditioning.
Answer:
Respondent Conditioning (e.g., Pavlov’s dog experiment with involuntary
responses).
Define Schema.
Answer:
A mental framework organizing knowledge (e.g., concept of "bird").
What is Scaffolding?
Answer:
Temporary support from teachers/experts to help learners surpass their ZPD.
What does MKO mean?
Answer:
More Knowledgeable Other (e.g., teachers/peers with superior knowledge).
Define Time Curve.
Answer:
A graph showing the relationship between learning progress and time,
illustrating error reduction rates.
Detailed
Discussion of topics
Constructivism
Constructivism is a
learner-centered educational theory emphasizing that individuals actively
construct knowledge through experiences and interactions with their
environment. Unlike traditional teaching methods where information is passively
transmitted, constructivism posits that learners build understanding by
assimilating new information into existing mental frameworks (schemas) and
accommodating discrepancies. Jean Piaget, a key proponent, argued that
cognitive development occurs through this dynamic process. For example, a child
forms a schema for "bird" (wings, flying) and revises it upon
encountering flightless birds like penguins. This theory underscores hands-on
learning, problem-solving, and collaborative activities.
Growth vs. Development
Growth and
development, though interrelated, differ fundamentally. Growth refers
to quantifiable physical changes such as increases in height, weight, or organ
size, measurable using tools like scales or stadiometers. In contrast, development encompasses
qualitative, holistic progress across physical, cognitive, emotional, and
social domains. For instance, while growth might track a child’s height,
development assesses milestones like language acquisition or moral reasoning.
Growth is finite (e.g., stops after puberty), whereas development is lifelong,
influenced by both genetics and environment.
Ego in Freudian Theory
The ego, a central
component of Freud’s structural model of the psyche, mediates between the
primal urges of the id and the moral constraints of the superego. Operating on
the reality principle, it employs rational thinking to satisfy
desires in socially acceptable ways. For example, if hungry (id impulse), the
ego plans to buy food rather than snatching it (superego prohibition). It
balances immediate gratification with long-term consequences, using mechanisms
like problem-solving and compromise. The ego’s maturity is crucial for adaptive
functioning, as it navigates external realities and internal conflicts.
Integration Principle in Development
This principle
asserts that development progresses from simple, undifferentiated abilities to
complex, integrated skills. Initially, children exhibit isolated behaviors
(e.g., grasping objects), which later combine into coordinated actions (e.g.,
writing, requiring fine motor control and cognitive planning). A classic
example is language development: infants babble sounds, then form words, and
eventually construct complex sentences. This principle highlights how neural
maturation and experience interact to refine and connect cognitive, motor, and
emotional capacities.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky’s ZPD
defines the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they
achieve with guidance. It underscores the role of social interaction in
learning. For instance, a child might solve a puzzle alone at a basic level but
complete advanced puzzles with a teacher’s hints. The ZPD identifies the
"sweet spot" for instruction, where scaffolding (temporary support)
bridges current and potential abilities. This concept revolutionized education
by emphasizing collaborative learning and tailored instruction.
Cooperative Play
Cooperative play
involves children collaborating toward shared goals, fostering teamwork and
social skills. Unlike parallel play (playing side-by-side without interaction),
it requires communication, role negotiation, and mutual respect. Examples
include team sports (soccer) or group projects (building a block city). Such
play enhances empathy, conflict resolution, and leadership, as children learn
to share resources, follow rules, and appreciate diverse perspectives. Piaget
and Vygotsky both highlighted its role in cognitive and social growth.
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Skinner’s theory
explains how consequences shape voluntary behaviors. Reinforcement (positive/negative)
increases behavior frequency, while punishment decreases it.
For example, a student who earns praise (positive reinforcement) for timely
submissions repeats the behavior, whereas one scolded (punishment) for
tardiness may improve. Skinner demonstrated this via the "Skinner
Box," where rats pressed levers for food rewards. Critics argue it
overlooks internal cognition, but its principles underpin behavior modification
in education and therapy.
Socialization’s Significance
Socialization is
the lifelong process of internalizing societal norms and values. Its key
functions include:
1. Cultural
Transmission: Passing traditions (e.g., festivals) and language across
generations.
2. Personality
Formation: Developing self-concept through feedback (e.g.,
"looking-glass self" by Cooley).
Family, schools, and peers act as primary agents, teaching roles (e.g., gender
expectations) and fostering conformity or critical thinking, depending on
societal openness.
Types of Attention
Attention is
classified by volition:
·
Voluntary (Endogenous): Goal-directed
focus (e.g., studying despite distractions), requiring cognitive effort.
·
Involuntary (Exogenous): Reflexive
response to salient stimuli (e.g., turning at a loud noise).
Neuroimaging shows voluntary attention engages prefrontal cortex, while
involuntary involves parietal lobes. Effective teaching balances both, using
engaging materials (involuntary) and metacognitive strategies (voluntary).
Parallel Play Benefits
Common in toddlers,
parallel play involves playing alongside peers without direct interaction.
Benefits include:
1. Social Skill
Foundations: Observing peers’ actions (e.g., sharing toys) prepares for future
cooperation.
2. Autonomy: Children
explore independently while feeling socially secure.
Though less advanced than cooperative play, it’s vital for early emotional regulation
and imitation-based learning.
Children’s Emotional Traits
Childhood emotions
are characterized by:
1. Intensity and
Transience: Rapid shifts from joy to tantrums due to immature prefrontal
regulation.
2. Egocentric
Expression: Inability to mask feelings (e.g., crying when frustrated). Adults
model emotional literacy by labeling emotions ("You seem angry") and
teaching coping strategies (deep breathing).
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
While both are
behaviorist theories, they differ in focus:
·
Classical (Pavlov): Links
involuntary responses to stimuli (e.g., fear of dogs after a bite).
·
Operant (Skinner): Shapes
voluntary actions via rewards/punishments (e.g., chores for allowance).
Classical conditioning underpins phobia treatments (systematic
desensitization), while operant guides classroom management (token economies).
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
This law posits
that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are "stamped in,"
while those with unpleasant consequences are "stamped out." For
example, a student praised for participation (satisfying) will contribute more,
whereas one ridiculed (unsatisfying) may withdraw. It laid groundwork for
behaviorism, though later theories (e.g., Bandura’s social learning) emphasized
observational over trial-and-error learning.
Self-Concept Determinants
Self-concept—the
perception of oneself—is shaped by:
1. Family: Parental
feedback ("You’re capable") builds confidence.
2. Social Comparisons: Evaluating
abilities against peers ("I’m good at math").
3. Cultural Values: Collectivist
societies stress group identity; individualist cultures prioritize personal
traits.
4. Achievements: Success in
academics/sports reinforces competence.
Kohlberg’s Moral Stages
Kohlberg’s theory
outlines moral reasoning development:
1. Pre-conventional: Avoid
punishment ("Don’t steal or you’ll be jailed").
2. Conventional: Uphold
laws/social order ("Good citizens obey rules").
3. Post-conventional: Abstract
ethics ("Justice may require breaking unjust laws").
Critics note its Western bias and that reasoning doesn’t always predict
behavior.
Family’s Role in Socialization
Families are
primary socialization agents by:
1. Norm
Internalization: Teaching manners (e.g., saying "please") through
reinforcement.
2. Role Modeling: Children
imitate parents’ conflict-resolution styles.
Dysfunctional families may socialize maladaptive behaviors (e.g., aggression),
highlighting the need for supportive interventions.
Socio-Cognitive Learning Stages
Rooted in Bandura’s
work, these stages describe observational learning:
1. Imitation: Copying
behaviors (e.g., a child mimicking parental speech).
2. Role Play: Practicing
social roles (e.g., playing "teacher").
3. Collaboration: Group
problem-solving (e.g., science projects), refining perspective-taking.
Conditioned Stimulus (Pavlov)
A previously
neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) that elicits a conditioned response (salivation)
after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (food). This principle
explains learned phobias (e.g., fear of needles after painful shots) and
informs exposure therapies.
Thorndike’s Law of Readiness
Learning is most
effective when the learner is physiologically and psychologically prepared. For
example, teaching complex math too early frustrates, while delayed instruction
misses critical periods. This underscores the importance of developmental
appropriateness in curricula.
Alleviating Childhood Fears
Strategies include:
1. Gradual Exposure: Incremental
contact with feared objects (e.g., petting a dog from afar to close).
2. Positive
Reinforcement: Rewarding brave behaviors (e.g., stickers for sleeping in the
dark).
Parental reassurance and avoiding forced encounters prevent trauma.
Learning Transfer Types
Transfer refers to
applying prior knowledge to new contexts:
·
Positive: Prior math skills aiding
physics learning.
·
Negative: Confusing Spanish pronunciation
when learning French.
Teaching for transfer involves highlighting similarities (e.g., comparing
historical events).
Enhancing Child Communication
Methods include:
1. Active Listening: Parents
modeling attentive responses.
2. Group Activities: Drama clubs
foster expressive language and turn-taking.
Early language-rich environments correlate with literacy success.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Erikson’s lifespan
theory identifies crises like:
·
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): Dependable
care builds hope.
·
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Exploring
roles solidifies self-concept.
Resolution at each stage influences personality and resilience.
Attention Defined
Attention is the
selective focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others. Limited by cognitive
load, it’s influenced by interest (e.g., a child engrossed in cartoons but
ignoring chores) and stimulus salience (bright colors in teaching aids).
Libido (Freud)
Freud’s concept of
psychic energy driving life instincts (e.g., survival, creativity). In
psychosexual stages, libido focuses on erogenous zones (oral, anal), with fixation
causing adult traits (e.g., oral fixation → overeating).
Respondent Conditioning
Pavlov’s model of
learning involuntary responses. Applied in treating phobias (e.g., pairing
relaxation with feared stimuli) and advertising (associating products with
positive emotions).
Schema (Piaget)
Mental structures
organizing information. For example, a "dog" schema includes four legs
and barking. New experiences either assimilate into schemas (calling a cow
"dog") or force accommodation (creating a "cow" schema).
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
Temporary support
adjusted to learner needs. A teacher might simplify a task, then gradually
increase complexity as competence grows, like guiding essay writing with
outlines before independent work.
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
Anyone with
superior knowledge facilitating learning, including peers (e.g., a classmate
explaining math) or technology (educational apps). Challenges traditional
teacher-centric models.
Time Curve in Learning
Graphs tracking
performance over time, showing plateaus or regression. For instance, a child’s
reading errors decrease rapidly initially, then stabilize. Identifies optimal
practice durations and intervention points.
